Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica Du Tour) is one of the main forest-forming tree species in boreal forests of Eurasia. Large edible
seeds of this species have an important resource value because of their high nutritious properties. Development of approaches to
establishment of early cone producing Siberian stone pine stands including utilization of corresponding genetic background is one of the priorities of forest resource management. The goal of our study was to evaluate the effect of stand density on the differentiation of trees by
the age of first reproduction and the relationship of allozyme heterozygosity and morphological traits variability in Siberian stone pine.
Morphological and allozyme variability in artificial Pinus sibirica stands with high and low density was investigated. In the high-density
stand the distance between trees was 0.7 and 3 meters (4080 trees per ha) while in the lowdensity stand it was 8 and 8 meters (144 trees
per ha). Age of formation of first male and female cones was evaluated by retrospective method based on analysis of tracks of cones on
a shoot bark. Tree height, diameter and number of male, female and vegetative shoots in a crown of model trees were measured.
Genotypes of the trees were determined by 29 isozyme loci coding for 16 enzymes (ADH, FDH, FEST, GDH, GOT, IDH, LAP, MDH, MNR, PEPCA, 6-PGD, PGI, PGM, SDH, SKDH, SOD). In the low-density stand, the portion of generative trees was higher and differentiation of trees by age of reproduction starting was lower in spite of the smaller age of trees as compared to the high-density stand. In
both samples, the age of formation of first generative organs was related negatively with stem height, stem diameter and number of
female shoots. In the high-density stand, positive relation of age of first reproduction with total number of shoots and number of
male shoots was found. In both samples nonreproductive trees were less heterozygous at isozyme loci as compared to trees starting cone
production. Allozyme heterozygosity correlated positively with the age of first cone production in the high-density stand only. We
conclude that the degree of competition between trees due to different stand density determined age and timing of first reproduction
and development of tree crowns. The relationship of allozyme heterozygosity and the age of first reproduction was expressed more in the high-density stand of Siberian stone pine.

The entire nucleotide sequence of the chloroplast genome (117,190bp) of Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) was determined and compared with the already published genome of Japanese black pine. As in the case of
Japanese black pine, it retains 475 bp inverted repeats containing 3' portion of psbA gene but lacking rRNA genes. The translated amino acid sequences of respective potential coding genes showed 77% to 100% sequence similarity to those of corresponding genes of P. thunbergii. When compared with Japanese black pine, the order of the genes is fairly conserved except for the psaM gene and ndh pseudo genes. Thirteen indels that are larger than 100 bp were
identified from the alignment of the two pine genomes. Except for the region containing ndh pseudo genes and that between psaI and accD,
all the large indels occur near the potential rearrangement breakpoints involving several tRNA genes and their neighboring sequences
as repeat units. Multiple rearrangement events appeared to be responsible for the loss of a copy of psaM gene and rps4 and ycf12 pseudo genes found in Japanese black pine. In addition,
the further proceeded truncation of ndhK pseudo gene in Korean pine and ndhB pseudo gene in Japanese black pine indicate that these
genes are functionally redundant in pines. Surprisingly, the loss of the gene and pseudo genes are conserved among haploxylon pines
and not in diploxylon pines, suggesting that they occurred simultaneously at the time of divergence or within a short period of time
after divergence of the two pine subgenera and that since then little change has occurred. There also appeared many indels that are less
than 50 bps. Many of these indels appeared to be the tandem duplication products of the adjacent sequences. These tandem repeats are also very well conserved among haploxylon and among diploxylon pines.

Genetic quality of plus trees selected phenotypically is generally determined by progeny tests in a breeding program. For the progeny test, there are a few limitations; all plus trees are not selected in the same year, seed collection does not occur in the same year due to flowering irregularity, unequal availability of progenies among families, and so on. Such limitations reflect spatial and temporal variation in the establishment of progeny test trials. Thus, one should develop a method of standardization in order to apply genetic information (i.e., general combining ability) from the progeny tests into genetic thinning or establishment of improved seed orchard. In this study, we developed a method for standardization to estimate general combining ability (GCA) based on the standard-site adjustment system. The method developed took the age of progeny and the number of test sites into account, which was based on the standard deviation of volume index (Height x DBH2) among different ages, sites and replications. Also, we used different weight values depending on the number of test sites and replications, and the age of trials. This method might give a general base on which to generalize the spatial and temporal variation in progeny tests. On the basis of the method, we estimated the
GCA of 244 open-pollinated families of Pinus koraiensis that were tested at four sites (Gunpo, Chuncheon, Kangryuong and Chungwon)
established from 1975 to 1994. Among 244 families, KW15 (0115) family showed the highest GCA value, while KW28 (0128) family
revealed the lowest GCA value. Each family had different GCA values depending on the age of progenies as well as sites. Although there are some needs to consider on gene-ecology for accurate results, the method we reported could be useful to estimate the GCA values of progenies tested under different ages and sites.

A clonal seed orchard of Korean white pine in Chuncheon, Korea, was
established in 1982 and some trees were stempruned at the height of 1m or 2m to increase nut production and provide easy cone collection
in 1996. The stem-pruned trees yielded the highest nut production (mean = 3,200g), which is 1.4 to 2.2 times higher than that (1,870g) of
un-pruned trees in 1999. As there was a large difference in quantity, it was questioned whether there are some differences in quality,
i.e. seed component, because of highlyincreased seed production. Three trees per treatment, selected from the same family, provided
seeds for three years for analysis from 2000 to 2002. The general component analysis followed the methods of AOAC and fatty acids
were investigated by gas liquid chromatography. The results obtained in percentage (%) were changed to angles following the arc sine
transformation and then analyzed. No significant differences were found among the three treatments, that is un-pruned, 1m-stem-pruned
and 2m-stem-pruned treatment, or among years in ash (1.67~2.48%), crude lipid (56.57~72.53%), crude protein (12.75~19.55%), and
carbohydrate (3.77~8.41%). Linoleic acid (18:2) (46.26~55.25%) and oleic acid (18:1) (27.19~32.45%) were the most common components
of the fatty acids. All seeds from each treatment contained two essential fatty acids, i.e., linoleic acid and linolenic acid (18:3)
(12.78~14.21%). Differences among treatments
were detected only in palmitoleic acid (16:1) (0.02~0.08%) and linolenic acid in 2001 and in 8,11,14-eicosatrienoic acid (20:3n9) in
2000. 5,9,12-pinoleic acid [18:3 (γ)] characteristic to Korean white pine seed was found in every seed. It was concluded that stem-pruning
had no influence on general seed component and fatty acid composition.

Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica Du Tour) in Russia is primarily valued as a nut-bearing species. Therefore, intra-stand
variation in its cone structure and seed production have been actively studied during the last 50 years. However, these studies are
poorly related to practical breeding. We used a novel system of traits to characterize yearly seed crops at the different levels of its
structural organization. The purpose is to analyze the results of long-term observations of the intra-stand variation of the reproductive
features complex, and to reveal the pattern and character of its diversity. This information would be useful to develop the method of
searching the initial material for breeding. The research plot is established in the Nizhne-Sechenovo forest located 25 km from
Tomsk in the south part of the boreal zone (170 years old, mean height 22 m, mean d.b.h. 60 cm). The number of sampled trees varied
between 40-120 among years. The registration of seed crop and analysis of its structure was conducted every year from 1990 to 2005. The
intra-stand variation of the traits' level was determined as a standard deviation in percent from the simple average. The level of
variability rose sharply and the correlations between them decreased in the years of the low crops. The results concerning variation in seed
and cone traits are listed in the next table. The number of full seeds depended rather on losses in the processes of development (r =
0.80*-0.85*) than on their starting number (r =0.55*-0.60*). The mass of one seed with sound endosperm rose with an increase in the ratio of
the ovules, which were lost at the earlier stages
of development (r = 0.20-0.25*) and the flat seed ratio (r = 0.35*-0.40*). In year-to-year dynamics, the number of cones per tree is
positively connected with the number of filled seeds per cone (r = 0.78*) and with other indices characterizing 'the crop quality'.The breeding rank of trees by all important traits remains relatively stable from year to year. Consequently, even in the years of big crops even the most productive trees fully use its potential. A considerable increase in seed production by means of artificial selection of the best genotypes is therefore possible without a visible decrease in the crop quality and without intensification of the cone-bearing irregularity. Criteria and method of selection of the initial material for the Siberian stone pine breeding as nut-bearing species have been suggested.

For the raising of the Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica Du Tour) nut-bearing and ornamental cultivars, the most important traits are a
dense crown, slow growth and precocity. Generative mutations of this kind are eliminated by natural selection, therefore, somatic mutation
rsearch is important. Among somatic mutations, the most promising one is the so-called 'witches' brooms' (WB) where crown fragments demonstrate slowed growth and intensive branching. WB occasionally occurs in native populations. According to phytopathology textbooks, WB are caused by various pathogen species (viruses, mycoplasmas, fungi). The WB of this kind are characterized by a sickly look, full suppression of reproductive functions, a short life and a nidus pattern
of distribution. There are also WB of different types: with a high vitality and fertility, a long life and sporadic distribution. They occur very rarely
(about 1 per 10 000 trees) across the species' range. We investigated 18 trees with WB of this type. The size of WB ranged from 0.3 to 30 m, age varied from 30 to 300 years. Male cones were absent in
all WB. Female cone initiation was normal if the WB was located in the top part of a crown. Scions from WB and a normal crown (NC) of the same tree were grafted on identical rootstocks. On average,
the height of 7-year-old WB grafts (WBG) was 2 times lower, and the stem diameter was 2 times higher than in the NC grafts (NCG). It was
achieved due to the fundamental differences in the shoot system morphogenesis. Here are three principal differences in decreasing order of importance: (i) WBGs were characterized by the absence or near absence of apical dominance. The NCG had no more than 3 orders of branching, and the length of the 1st order axis was on average 5
times larger than the axis of the 3rd order. The WBG had 6-7 orders of branching, and the length of shoots of 5-6th orders averaged 80-90% of the length of the first orders. (ii) At an identical shoot length, the number of lateral buds in the WBG was 3-4 times more. This superiority was achieved in several ways: a greater shoot number per node, the
presence of one or even two additional nodes (summer shoot) on many annual shoots, the formation of lateral long shoots outside any nodes
(instead of short shoots). (iii) The number of stem units, their length, and annual shoot length in the WBG were 1.5-2 times less compared with the NCG. The first seed cones were initiated in both variants in the year of grafting. However, by the end of 5-7 year period of supervision, the WBG surpassed the NCG in the number of cones by 5-10 times. WB and NC have also been tested on seed progeny (WBP and NCP). In the WBP halfsib families, a clear tendency of splitting into two
classes was observed: (1) normal seedlings, statistically indistinguishable from the homogenous NCPs and (2) seedlings with growth essentially slowed down and very intensive branching. The ratio of the two classes was about 1:1. Therefore, the studied WB are a dominant somatic mutation. The principles of using of these mutations in breeding programs are discussed.